sea canary

sea-canary[´si:¸kənɛəri] n бял кит.

[s'i: kanɛəri] n Zool beluca, beluga.

n; сл.

n; сл.

{'si:kə,nεəri}
n бял кит

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{'si:kъ,nЁъri} n бял кит.

* * *

بال‌ يانهنگ‌ دريايي‌

(n) белый кит

ballena blanca.

A n. [cu]

1 mare: The sea was smooth [rough], il mare era calmo [agitato]; He jumped into the sea, si è gettato in mare; the Mediterranean Sea, il Mare Mediterraneo; (astron.) the Sea of Tranquillity, il Mare della Tranquillità; by sea, per mare; via mare: to send goods by sea, spedire merce via mare; by the sea, presso il mare, sulla riva del mare: a cottage by the sea, una villetta in riva al mare; We live by the sea, viviamo al mare; (naut.) to be at sea, essere in mare (o in navigazione); (naut.) to put ( out) to sea, salpare; prendere il mare; (naut.) to take to the open sea, portarsi al largo; to be lost at sea, scomparire in mare; to cross the sea, attraversare il mare

2 mare; colpo di mare; maroso: high sea (o strong sea, heavy seas) mare grosso; A high sea swept him overboard, un grosso maroso lo ha trascinato in mare (dal ponte della nave); choppy sea, maretta; mare rotto; stormy seas, mari tempestosi

3 (fig.) mare: a sea of troubles, un mare d'affanni (o di guai); a sea of faces, un mare di facce

B a. attr.

marino; di mare; marittimo: sea bottom, fondo marino; sea air, aria di mare; sea camp, colonia marina; sea passage, passaggio marittimo; traversata

● (naut.) sea abeam, mare di traverso □ (ass.) sea accident, sinistro marittimo □ (zool.) sea acorn ( Balanus), balano □ (naut.) sea anchor, ancora galleggiante □ (zool.) sea anemone ( Actinia), attinia; anemone di mare □ (zool.) sea bass, pesce dei Perciformi ( in genere); ( Labrax lupus) branzino, spigola □ sea-bathing, bagni di mare □ (zool.) sea bear, ( Thalarctos maritimus) orso polare; ( Arctocephalus) arctocefalo; ( Callorhinus alascanus) callorino dell'Alasca, foca orsina □ sea bird, uccello marino □ sea biscuit, galletta; biscotto □ (zool.) sea bream, pesce degli Sparidi ( in genere); ( Pagellus centrodontus) pagello □ sea breeze, brezza di mare □ (zool.) sea calf ( Phoca vitulina), foca comune; vitello marino □ (zool.) sea canary ( Delphinapterus leucas), delfino bianco; beluga □ (naut.) sea captain, capitano marittimo ( di un mercantile); capitano di marina □ sea change, metamorfosi marina; (fig. lett.) inversione di rotta (fig.), svolta improvvisa (o radicale) □ sea chest, baule da marinaio □ sea cliff, scarpata costiera; scogliera □ (zool.) sea cow, ( Odobenus rosmarus) tricheco; ( Dugong dugong) dugongo; vacca marina (o di mare); ( Trichechus manatus) manato, lamantino, vacca di mare; ( Hippopotamus amphibius) ippopotamo □ (zool.) sea crow, ( Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) gracchio corallino; ( Phalacrocorax carbo) cormorano, marangone □ (zool.) sea cucumber ( Holothuria), cetriolo di mare; oloturia □ (zool.) sea-devil ( Manta birostris), manta; diavolo di mare; razza cornuta □ sea dog, (scherz.) lupo di mare; (stor.) pirata, corsaro; (zool., Zalophus californianus) leone marino della California; (zool.) = sea calf ► sopra □ (zool.) sea drum ( Pogonias cromis), borbottone ( delle coste atlantiche delle due Americhe) □ (zool.) sea eagle ( Haliaetus), aquila di mare □ (zool.) sea-ear ( Haliotis), orecchia di mare □ (zool.) sea elephant ( Mirounga leonina), elefante marino □ (zool.) sea fan ( Gorgonia), gorgonia □ (bot.) sea fennel ( Crithmum maritimum), finocchio marino □ sea fight, battaglia navale □ sea fire, fosforescenza marina □ sea floor, fondo marino □ (zool.) sea-flower ( Actinia), attinia; anemone di mare □ sea foam, schiuma del mare; (miner.) schiuma di mare, sepiolite □ sea fog, nebbia marina □ (mil.) sea forces, forze di mare; effettivi navali; marina militare □ (zool.) sea fowl, uccello marino □ (zool.) sea fox ( Alopias vulpinus), volpe di mare; pesce volpe □ (lett.) sea-girt, circondato dal mare □ (mitol.) sea-god, divinità marina; dio del mare □ sea green, colore verde mare; verdazzurro □ (zool.) sea hare, gastropode ( in genere); ( Aplysia punctata) lepre di mare □ (zool.) sea hedgehog ( Echinus), riccio di mare □ (zool.) sea hog, ( Phocaena phocaena) focena comune; ( Cephalorhynchus) cefalorinco □ (bot.) sea island ( cotton) ( Gossypium barbadense), cotone delle Sea Islands (in USA); (ind. tess.) (tessuto di) cotone a fibra lunga □ (zool.) sea jelly ( Medusa), medusa □ (bot.) sea kale ( Crambe maritima), cavolo marino □ (naut.) sea kindliness ► seakeeping, B □ (naut.) sea kit, corredo di bordo ( di marinaio) □ (naut.) sea ladder, biscaglina □ sea lane, rotta marittima □ (fam.) sea legs, capacità di stare in equilibrio su un'imbarcazione; il non soffrire il mal di mare □ (zool.) sea lemon ( Doris), doride □ (zool.) sea leopard, ( Hydrurga leptonyx) foca leopardo; ( Leptonychotes weddelli) foca di Weddell □ sea level, livello del mare: above [below] sea level, sul livello [sotto il livello] del mare □ sea line, linea dell'orizzonte ( sul mare) □ (zool.) sea lion, ( Otaria) leone marino, otaria; (= Californian sea lion; Zalophus) zalofo, leone marino della California □ (naut.) Sea Lord, alto ufficiale dell'Ammiragliato britannico □ (poet.) sea-maid, sirena; naiade (fig.) □ (naut.) sea marker, segnale con colorante ( per gli aerei di soccorso, ecc.) □ (ecol.) sea marsh (o sea meadow), acquitrino salmastro □ (zool.) sea melon ( Holothuria), cetriolo di mare; oloturia □ (zool.) sea mew ( Larus canus), gavina □ sea mile, miglio marino (o nautico) □ sea mist, foschia dal mare □ sea monster, mostro marino □ (zool.) sea mouse ( Aphrodite aculeata), afrodite □ (zool.) sea nettle, medusa □ (mitol.) sea-nymph, ninfa marina; nereide □ (fig.) seas of blood, grande spargimento di sangue □ (bot.) sea onion ( Urginea maritima), scilla □ (zool.) sea otter ( Enhydra lutris), lontra marina □ (zool.) sea parrot ( Fratercula arctica), pulcinella di mare □ (zool.) sea pen ( Pennatula), penna di mare; pennatula □ sea pie, pasticcio di pesce e carne salata; (zool., Haematopus ostralegus) beccaccia di mare □ ( arte) sea piece, marina ( quadro) □ (zool.) sea pig, ( Phocaena phocaena) focena comune; ( Dugong) dugongo; ( Delphinus delphis) delfino comune □ (zool.) sea pike, luccio di mare; barracuda □ (naut.) sea pilot, pilota marittimo □ (polit.) sea power, potenza navale (o marittima) □ (zool.) sea pumpkin ( Holothuria), cetriolo di mare; oloturia □ (naut.) sea room, spazio per manovrare □ sea route, rotta navale □ sea rover, corsaro, pirata; nave corsara □ sea salt, sale marino □ (zool., mitol.) sea serpent, ( Pelamydrus) serpente marino; ( Hydrophis) idrofide □ (zool.) sea sleeve ( Sepia officinalis), seppia □ (zool.) sea snipe ( Macrorhamphosus scolapax), pesce trombetta; beccaccia (di mare) □ (bot.) sea squill, ( Pancratium maritimum), giglio (o narciso) marino; pancrazio □ (zool.) sea squirt ( Ciona, Phallusia, ecc.), ascidia semplice; ascidia solitaria □ sea star ► starfish □ (naut.) sea stock, provviste di bordo □ sea storm, tempesta di mare; mareggiata □ (zool.) sea swallow ( Sterna hirundo), rondine di mare □ (bot.) sea tangle ( Laminaria), laminaria □ (zool.) sea toad ( Lophius piscatorius), rana pescatrice □ (zool.) sea trout ( Salmo trutta trutta), trota di mare □ (zool.) sea urchin ( Echinus), riccio di mare □ sea water ► seawater □ sea wind, brezza di mare; vento dal mare □ sea-wolf, (zool., Zalophus) zalofo; (zool., Anarrhichas lupus) pesce lupo; (fig.) corsaro, pirata □ to be all at sea, essere confuso, disorientato, perplesso, in alto mare: I was all at sea as to where to apply for information, ero perplesso su dove rivolgermi per avere informazioni □ at the bottom of the sea, in fondo al mare □ beyond (o across) the sea, di là del mare; oltremare □ to follow the sea, fare il marinaio □ to get (o to find) one's sea legs, riuscire a mantenere l'equilibrio a bordo di una nave; non soffrir più il mal di mare □ to go to sea, farsi marinaio; imbarcarsi □ (fig.) to be half seas over, essere mezzo ubriaco; essere brillo □ (naut.) to hold out at sea, tenere il mare; reggere il mare □ (naut.) to keep the sea, tenere il mare; restare in mare □ (fig.) to be lost in a sea of debt, esser sommerso da un mare di debiti □ on the sea, sul mare; nel mare; in mare: Boats were sailing on the sea, barche veleggiavano nel mare; We were on the sea, eravamo in mare ( su una nave); Viareggio is on the sea, Viareggio è sul mare ( in riva al mare).

1) море; океан; водна поверхня земної кулі

2) морська вода

3) поверхня моря; морська гладінь

4) часто pl хвиля, хвилювання

5) безліч, сила-силенна, величезна кількість

6) приплив

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1) водна поверхня земної кулі; море, oкeaн; ( Sea у назвах деяких озер) море

2) морська вода; морська справа; флот

3) поверхня моря, морська гладь; часто pl хвиля, вал; хвилювання

4) маса, величезна кількість

5) icт. приплив

grass 1.трава; злак; дёрн; pl злаковые травы; 2. пастбище; пастись; 3. зарастать травой; 4. засевать травой

alang grass императа цилиндрическая, Imperata cylindrica

Aleppo grass гумай, сорго алепское, Sorghum halepense

alfa grass эспарто, трава альфа, Stipa tenacissima

alkali grass униола колосистая, Uniola spicata

aloe grass алетрис мучнистый, Aletris farinosa

American beach grass песколюб короткоязычковый, Ammophila breviligulata

American panic grass просо колумбийское, Panicum columbianum

annual meadow grass мятлик однолетний, Poa annua

Arctic holy grass зубровка малоцветковая, Hierochloe pauciflora

Arctic spear grass мятлик джунгарский, Poa dschungarica

arrow grass 1. триостренник, Triglochin ; 2. аристида краснеющая, Aristida purpurascens

awned wheat grass рэгнерия собачья, Roegneria canina

awnless brome grass костёр трясунковидный, Bromus brizaeformis; костёр безостый, Bromus inermis

Bahia grass гречка заметная, Paspalum notatum

barbed panic grass просо шелкоплодное, Panicum microcarpun

bareet grass леерсия шеститычинковая, рисовая трава, Leersia hexandra

barn grass куриное просо, ежовник петушье просо, Echinochloa crusgalli

barnacle grass взморник морской, Zostera marina

barnyard grass куриное просо, ежовник петушье просо, Echinochloa crusgalli

barren brome grass костёр бесплодный, Bromus sterilis

beach grass песколюб песчаный, Ammophila arenaria

beaked panic grass просо обоюдоострое, Panicum anceps

bear grass юкка сизая, Yucca glauca; юкка нитчатая, Yucca filamentosa

beard grass 1. многобородник монпелиенский, Polypogon monspeliensis ; 2. бородач, Antropogon

bent grass полевица, Agrostis

Bermuda grass свинорой пальчатый, бермудская трава, собачья трава, Cynodon dactylon

billion-dallar grass куриное просо, ежовник петушье просо, Echinochloa crusgalli

birdwood grass ценхрус щетинконосный, Cenchrus setigerus

black grass 1. лисохвост мышехвостниковидный, Alopecurus myosuroides ; 2. ситник Герарда, Juncus gerardii

black oat grass ковыль овсоподобный, Stipa avenacea

blowout grass 1. тростянка, Scolochloa ; 2. оленья трава, мюленбергия, Muhlenbergia

blue couch grass свинорой, Cynodon

blue joint (reed) grass вейник канадский, Calamagrostis canadensis

blue moor grass перловник голубой, Molinia coerulea

blue panic grass просо ладьевидное, Panicum cymbiforme

blue scorpion grass незабудка разноцветная, Myosotis versicolor; незабудка мелкоцветковая, Myosotis micrantha

blue wheat grass пырей жёсткий, Agropyrum scabrum

blue-eyed grass сисюринхий узколистный, Sisyrinchium angustifolium

blunt panic grass просо притупленное, Panicum obtusum

bog panic grass просо светлое, Panicum lucidum

bottelbrush grass шероховатка, Asperella

bristle grass щетинник, Setaria

broad-leaved panic grass просо широколистное, Panicum latifolium

brome grass костёр, Bromus

brook grass поручейница, Catabrosa

broom beard grass схизахирий м етловидный, Schizachyrium scoparium

brown bent grass полевица собачья, Agrostis canina

buffalo grass бухлоэ, бизонова трава, Buchloe dactyloides

bunch grasses рыхлокустовые злаки

bur grass 1. иглица, Echinaria ; 2. ценхрус якорцевидный, Cenchrus tribuloides

burdock grass козлец кистевидный, Tragus racemosus

bush grass вейник наземный, Calamagrostis epigeios

bushy grasses кустовые злаки

Campbell Island bent grass полевица антарктическая, Agrostis antarctica

Canary grass канареечник канарский, Phalaris canariensis

Carib grass шерстяк многоколосый, Eriochloa polystachya

carnation grass осока просяная, Carex panicea; осока сизая, Carex glauca; осока мохнатая, Carex hirta

carpet grass аксонопус сжатый, Axonopus compressus

cat grass антистирия овсовидная, Anthistiria avenacea

cat's-tail grass тимофеевка луговая, Phleum pratense

catch fly grass гомалоценхрус чечевичковый, Homalocenchrus lenticularis

cattail grass тимофеевка луговая, Phleum pratense

cespitous grasses дернообразующие злаки

cheat grass костёр кровельный, Bromes tectorum

chee reed grass вейник наземный, Calamagrostis epigeios

China grass рами, китайская крапива (Bochmeria nivea(

cleavers grass подмаренник цепкий, Galium aparine

cloud grass полевица тёмная, Agrostis nebulosa

coast wheat grass пырей колючий, Agropyrum pungens

cock grass костёр ржаной, Bromus secalinus

cock's-foot grass ежа сборная, Dactylis glomerata

cockspur grass куриное просо, ежовник петушье просо, Echinochloa crusgalli

colonial bent grass полевица волосовидная, Agrostis tenuis

Columbian grass колумбова трава, Sorghum almum

common reed grass тростник обыкновенный, Phragmites communis

congayam grass буйволиная трава, иглица реснитчатая, Echinaria ciliaris

corn brome grass костёр раскидистый, Bromus squarrosus

corn grass метлица полевая, Apera spicavinti

cotton grass пушица, Eriophorum

couch grass 1. растение с ползучими корневищами; сорняки, быстро размножающиеся корневищами; 2. паспалум двухрядный, Paspalum distichum

crab grass 1. росичка кровяная, Digitaria sanguinalis ; 2. африканское просо, Pennisetum glaucum

creeping bent grass полевица белая, Agrostis alba

creeping soft grass бухарник мягкий, Holcus mollis

creeping stem grass корневищное травянистое растение

crested wheat grass пырей гребенчатый, Agropyrum cristatum

curly grass схизея карликовая, схизея малая, Schizaea pusilla

curly mesquite grass хилария, Hilaria

cut grass леерсия рисовидная, Leersia oryzoides

dallis grass паспалум расширенный, Paspalum dilatatum

deer grass 1. оленья трава, мюленбергия, Muhlenbergia; 2. рексия виргинская, Rhexia virginica

dennett grass колосняк полосатый, Elymus striatus

dense panic grass просо густое, Panicum condensum

densely tufted grasses плотнокустовые злаки

desert wheat grass пырей пустынный, Agropyrum desertorum

Devil's grass 1. пырей ползучий, Agropyrum repens; 2. паспалум двухрядный, Paspalum distichum

dew grass ежа сборная, Dactylis glomerata

ditch grass . руппия морская, Ruppia maritima

dog's-tail grass гребневик обыкновенный, Cynosurus cristatus

dog's-tooth grass 1. пырей собачий, Agropyrum canina; 2. свинорой пальчатый, бермудская трава, собачья трава, Cynodon dactylon

dog's-tooth star grass хлорис растопыренный, Chloris divaricata

downy brome grass костёр кровельный, Bromes tectorum

downy lyme grass колосняк песчаный, Elymus arenarius

dropseed grass мюленбергия Шребера, Muhlenbergia schreberi

dudder grass адиантум венерин волос, Adiantum capillus-veneris

dwarf meadow grass мятлик однолетний, Poa annua

dwarf panic grass просо реснитчатое, Panicum ciliatum

eared grasses колосовые злаки

early branching panic grass просо раннее, Panicum praecocius

earstem grasses колосовые злаки

East Indian lemon grass индийская лимонная трава, Cymbopogon flexuosus

eastern blue-eyed grass сисюринхий атлантический, Sisyrinchium atlanticum

Eaton's panic grass просо пренебрежённое, Panicum spretum

elephant grass пеннисетум красный, Pennisetum purpureum

Elliott's bent grass полевица Эллиота, Agrostis elliottiana

European beach grass песколюб песчаный, Ammophila arenaria

fairy grass трясунка средняя, Briza media

faitours grass молочай острый, Euphorbia esula

false brome grass коротконожка, Brachypodium

false grass гомалоценхрус рисовидный, Homalocenchrus oryzoides

feather grass ковыль перистый, Stipa pinnata

felon grass горичник настурциевый, Peucedanum ostruthium

fescue grass овсяница, Festuca

few-flowered panic grass просо малоцветковое, Panicum oligosanthes

fiddle grass кипрей мохнатый, Epilobium hursutum

field (chess) brome grass костёр полевой, Bromus arvensis

field scorpion grass незабудка полевая, Myosotis arvensis

filiform fescue grass овсяница волосистая, Festuca capillata

fine bent grass полевица обыкновенная, Agrostis vulgaris

finger grass росичка, Digitaria

fire grass невзрачница полевая, Aphanes arvensis

firm-bunch grasses плотнокустовые злаки

fish grass кабомба, Cabomba

flat-stemmed meadow grass мятлик сплюснутый, Poa compressa

flat-stemmed panic grass просо обоюдоострое, Panicum anceps

flattened oat grass дантония сжатая, Danthonia compressa

flax grass овёс пустой, овсюг, Avena fatua

flexuous spur grass мятлик осенний, Poa autumnalis

floating (manna) grass манник наплывающий, Glyseria fluitans

forked panic grass просо вильчатое, Panicum dichotomum

fountain grass пеннисетум скальный, Pennisetum rupelii

four-leaved grass вороний глаз четырёхлистный, Paris quadrifolia

fowl blue grass мятлик болотный, Poa palustris

foxtail grass 1. канареечник каролинский, Phalaris caroliniana ; 2. щетинник мутовчатый, Setaria verticillata

French grass псоралея эспарцетовидная, Psoralea onobrychis

fringed brome grass костёр реснитчатый, Bromus ciliatus

frog grass солерос европейский, Salicornia europaea

galleta grass хилария твёрдая, Hilaria rigida

gama grass трипсакум ежевидный, Tripsacum dactyloides

German velvet grass бухарник мягкий, Holcus mollis

giant rye grass колосняк гигантский, "песчаный овёс", Elymus giganteus

glaucous spear grass мятлик сизый, Poa glauca

glume grass чилибуха, рвотный корень, Strychnos nuxvomica

goat grass эгилопс, Aegilops

golden oat grass трищетинник желтоватый, Trisetum flavescens

golden-eyed grass сисюринхий узколистный, Sisyrinchium angustifolium

goose grass 1. елеузина индийская, Eleusina indica ; 2. пуцинелла приморская, Puccinella maritima

great fescue grass овсяница гигантская, festuca gigantea

great goose grass острица лежачая, Asperugo procumbens

green bristle grass щетинник зелёный, Setaria viridis

green foxtail grass щетинник зелёный, Setaria viridis

green valley grass гумай, сорго алепское, Sorghum halepense

Grisebach's panic grass просо игловидное, Panicum aciculare

hair grass аира волосовидная, Aira capillaris

hairlike love grass полевичка волосистовидная, Eragrostis trichoides

hairy brome grass костёр шероховатый, Bromus asper

hairy crab grass росичка кровяная, Digitaria sanguinalis

hairy finger grass . росичка кровяная, Digitaria sanguinalis

hard grass 1. жесткоколосница (Sclerochloa) ; 2. pl жёсткие злаки

hare'stail grass зайцехвост яйцевидный, Lagurus ovatus

heath grass зиглигния лежачая, трёхзубка, Sieglingia decumbens

hengehog grass иглица, Echinaria

herd's grass 1. полевица белая, Agrostis alba; 2. тимофеевка луговая, Phleum pratense

hign grasses высокие злаки

holy grass зубровка душистая (Hierochloё Aodorata)

Hungarian brome grass костёр безостый, Bromus inermis

Hungarian grass щетинник итальянский, Setaria italica

Indian grass 1. аира голубая, Aira coerulea ; 2. соргаструм поникающий, Sorghastrum nutans

Italian rye grass плевел итальянский, Lotium italicum

Japanese lawn grass зойсия японская, Zoysia japonica

Johnson grass 1. гумай, сорго алепское, Sorghum halepense; 2. роговик униоловидный, Ceratochloa unioloides

joint grass паспалум двухрядный, Paspalum distichum

June grass тонгоног, келерия, Koeleria

kangaroo grass темеда, Themeda

knob grass коллинзония канадская, Collinsonia canadensis

knot grass 1. пырей ползучий, Agropyrum repens; 2. спорыш, горец птичий, Polygonum aviculare

Korean lawn grass зойсия японская, Zoysia japonica

kunth's panic grass просо кроваво-красное, Panicum consanguineum

lady grass канареечник тростниковидный, Phalaris arundinacea

lady's hair grass трясунка средняя, Briza media

lake reed grass вейник озёрный, Calamagrostis lacustris

large crab grass росичка кровяная, Digitaria sanguinalis

large-flowered spear grass мятлик выдающийся, Poa eminens

lax-flowered panic grass просо рыхлометельчатое, Panicum laxiflorum

lime grass луговик дернистый, щучка, Deschampsia caespitosa

little-seed canary grass канареечник малый, Phalaris minor

long-leaved panic grass просо длиннолистное, Panicum longifolium

long-leaved reed grass вейник длиннолистный, Calamagrostis longifolia

long-leaved rush grass спороболус шероховатый, Sporobolus asper

loose-bunch grasses рыхлокустовые злаки

love grass полевичка, Eragrostis

low grasses низкие злаки

low love grass полевичка малая, Eragrostis minor

low spear grass мятлик укороченный, Poa abbreviata

lyme grass колосняк песчаный, Elymus arenarius

Manila grass зойсия, Zoysia

manna grass манник, Glyceria

marl grass клевер средний, Trifolium medium

marram grass песколюб песчаный, Ammophila arenaria

marsh grass спартина, Spartina

marsh spike grass униола колосистая, Uniola spicata

mat grass белоус, Nardus

matting panic grass просо южное, Panicum meridionale

meadow fescue grass овсяница луговая, Festuca pratensis

meadow grass мятлик луговой, Poa pratensis

meadow love grass полевичка преломлённая, Eragrostis refracta

meadow oat grass овсец луговой, Avenastrum pratensis

meadow rougish grass мятлик обыкновенный, Poa trivialis

meadow spear grass мятлик горный, Poa laxa

melic grass перловник, Melica

michaux's blue-eyed grass сисюринхий остроконечный, Sisyrinchium mucronatum

millet grass бор развесистый, Milium effusum

molasses grass паточная трава, Melinis minutiflora

money grass погремок петушиный гребешок, Rhinanthus crista-galli

moor grass 1. перловник голубой, Molinia coerulea; 2. росянка круглолистная, Drosera rotundifolia ; 3. сеслерия, Sesleria

mountain spear grass мятлик горный, Poa laxa

mountain timothy grass тимофеевка альпийская, Phleum alpinum

mutton grass мятлик Фендлера, Poa fendleriana

napier grass слоновая трава, Pennisetum purpureum

narro reed grass вейник незамеченный, Calamagrostis neglecta

narrow-leaved panic grass просо узколистное, Panicum angustifolium

New England bent grass полевица горолюбивая, Agrostis oreophila

nit grass пузатик, Gastridium

nodding fescue grass овсяница поникающая, Festuca nutans

nodding vanila grass зубровка Наши, Hierochloe nashii

northern manna grass манник северный, Glyceria borealis; манник рыхлый, Glyceria laxa

northern panic grass просо северное, Panicum boreale

northern reed grass вейник северный, Calamagrostis hyperborea

northern spear grass мятлик шафранный, Poa crocata

northern wheat grass пырей пушистоцветковый, Agropyrum dasyanthum

nut grass сыть круглая, Cyperus rotundus; сыть щетинистая, Cyperus strigosus

oat grass 1. овёс пустой, овсюг, Avena fatua ; 2. трищетинник пенсильванский, Trisetum pennsylvanicum; 3. французский райграсс высокий, Arrhenatherum elatus

old-witch grass просо волосовидное, Panicum capillare

onion grass перловник, Melica

orange grass зверобой горечавковидный, Hypericum gentianoides

orchard grass ежа сборная, Dactylis glomerata

painted grass двукисточник тростниковидный, Digraphis arundinacea

pale manna grass манник бледный, Glyceria pallida

pampas grass пампасная трава, Cortaderia

panic grass 1. просо, Panicum; 2. куриное просо, ежовник петушье просо, Echinochloa crusgalli

peavine grass чина посевная, Lathyrus sativus

pemba grass пембская трава, Stenotaphrum dimidiatum

penny grass погремок петушиный гребешок, Rhinanthus crista-galli

perennial foxtail grass щетинник безбородый, Setaria imberbis

perennial quaking grass трясунка средняя, Briza media

permanent grasses многолетние злаки, многолетние травы

pigeon grass росичка кровяная, Digitaria sanguinalis

pin grass аистник цикутолистный, erodium cicutarium

pine grass 1. вейник краснеющий, calamagrostis rubescens ; 2. овсяница аризонская, Festuca arizonica ; 2. блефаронеурон, Blepharoneuron; 2. хвощ полевой, Equisetum arvense

pine purple grass вейник Лангсдорфа, Calamagrostis lansdorffii

plains bristle grass щетинник крупноколосный, Setaria macrostachya

plume grass 1. серебряная трава, мискантус (Miscanthus); 2. эриантус сахаристый, Erianthus saccharoides

Poland manna grass манник наплывающий, Glyseria fluitans

poly grass дербенник иссополистный, Lythrum hyssopifolia

porcupine grass 1. триостренник, Triglochin; 2. аристида краснеющая, Aristida purpurascens

poverty grass аристида вильчатая, Aristida dichotoma

poverty grass худзония войлочная, Hudsonia tomentosa

prairie grass 1. спороболус, Sporobolus; 2. акамптокладос, Acamptolados

prairie spear grass мятлик аридный, Poa arida

prickle grass куриное просо, ежовник петушье просо, Echinochloa crusgalli

pudding grass мята болотная, Mentha pulegium

purple crab grass росичка кровяная, Digitaria sanguinalis

purple love grass полевичка гребешковая, Eragrostis pectinacea

purple moor grass перловник голубой, Molinia coerulea

purple panic grass просо малоопушённое, Panicum paucipilum

purplish wheat grass пырей двухцветковый, Agropyrum biflorum

quack grass свинорой, Cynodon

quail grass целозия серебристая, Celosia argentea

quake grass трясунка средняя, Briza media

quaking grass трясунка средняя, Briza media

quinea grass просо крупное, Panicum maximum

quitch grass 1. свинорой, Cynodon; 2. пырей ползучий, Agropyrum repens

rabbit-foot grass многобородник монпелиенский, Polypogon monspeliensis

rabbit-tail grass зайцехвост яйцевидный, Lagurus ovatus

rancheria grass вульпия мышехвостник, Vulpia myuros

rat's-tail fescue grass вульпия мышехвостник, Vulpia myuros

rattlesnake grass манник канадский, Glyceria canadensis

red bent grass полевица северная, Agrostis borealis

red fescue grass овсяница красная, Restuca rubra

red field's grass редфильдия согнутая, Redfieldia flexuosa

red-tailed fescue grass колосняк гигантский, "песчаный овёс", Elymus giganteus

red-top false grass мятлик трёхцветковый, Poa triflora

red-top panic grass просо полевицерядное, Panicum agrostoides

reed canary grass двукисточник тростниковидный, Digraphis arundinacea

reed grass 1. вейник тростниковидный, Calamagrostis arundinacea ; 2. канареечник птичий, Phalaris canariensis

reed manna grass манник водный, Glyceria aquatica

rhizomatous grasses корневищные злаки

rib grass подорожник ланцетный, Plantago lanceolata

ribbon grass двукисточник тростниковидный, Digraphis arundinacea

rice grass 1. оризопсис, рисовидка, Oryzopsis ; 2. пиптохетиум, Piptochaetium

ripgut grass костёр жестковатый, Bromus rigidus

river grass флюминея, Fluminea

rootstock grasses корневищные злаки

rosha grass спороболус, Sporobolus

rot grass жирнянка обыкновенная, Pinguicula vulgaris

rough fescue grass овсяница алтайская, Festuca altaica

rough hair grass полевица зимующая, Agrostis hiemalis

rough rush grass спороболус скрытый, Sporobolus clandestinus

rough-hairy panic grass просо щетинистое, Panicum strigosum

rough-stalked meadow grass мятлик обыкновенный, Poa trivialis

roughish panic grass просо беловолосое, Panicum leucothrix

roung-fruited panic grass просо круглоплодное, Panicum sphaerocarpun

rush grass спороболус, Sporobolus

rush prairie grass мюленбергия остроконечная, Muhlenbergia cuspidata

rush salt grass ежа раскидистая, Dactylis patens

rush-cat's-tail grass скрытница камышевидная, Crypsis schoenoides

rushlike timothy grass скрытница камышевидная, Crypsis schoenoides

Russia grass манник наплывающий, Glyseria fluitans

rye grass плевел, Lotium

salt grass униола колосистая, Uniola spicata

salt-marsh grass ежа раскидистая, Dactylis patens

sand blue-eyed grass сисюринхий песчаный, Sisyrinchium arenicola

sand grass 1. триплазис пурпурный, Triplasis purpurea ; 2. каламовильфа, Calamovilfa

sape grass императа бразильская, Imperata brasiliensis

saw grassмеч-трава, Cladium mariscus

scented grass золотобородник, Chrysopogon

scorbute grass ложечница арктическая, Cochlearia arictica

scorpion grass незабудка болотная, Mysotis palustris

scratch grass 1. мюленбергия ясменниколистная, Muhlenbergia asperifolia; 2. подмаренник цепкий, Galium aparine

scurvy grass 1. ложечная трава, Cochlearia; ложечница лекарственная, Cochlearia officinalis; 2. серебряная трава, мискантус, Miscanthus

scutch grass 1. пырей ползучий, Agropyrum repens; 2. свинорой пальчатый, бермудская трава, собачья трава, Cynodon dactylon

sea grass 1. руппия морская, Ruppia maritima ; 2. солерос европейский, Salicornia europaea ; 3. армерия обыкновенная, Armeria vulgaris

sea sand grass песколюб песчаный, Ammophila arenaria

sea spear grass мятлик приморский, Poa maritima

seashore alkali grass бескильница морская, Atropis maritima

seashore grass полевица приморская, Agrostis maritima

sedge grass 1. осока пенсильванская, Carex pennsylvanica ; 2. хвощ полевой, Equisetum arvense ; 3. аир тростниковый, ирный корень, Acorus calamus

seneca grass зубровка душистая, Hierochlo odorata

serpent grass горец змеиный, раковые шейки, Polygonum bistorta

sharp-scaled manna grass манник остроцветковый, Clyceria acutiflora

shave grass хвощ зимующий, Equisetum hyemale

sheep's fescue grass овсяница овечья, Festuca ovina

shelly grass пырей ползучий, Agropyrum repens

shilling grass щитолистник обыкновенный, Hydrocotyle vulgaris

shore grass 1. монантохлое прибрежный, Monanthochloe littoralis ; 2. подорожник одноцветковый, Plantago uniflora

short grass 1. короткотравье, низкотравье; 2. pl низовые злаки

short-leaved spear grass мятлик коротколистный, Poa brachyphylla

short-stalked love grass полевичка коротконожковая, Eragrostis curtipedicellata

signal grass ветвянка, Brachiaria

silk grass 1. паспалум влагалищный, Paspalum vaginatum ; 2. юкка нитчатая, Yucca filamentosa; 3. ковыль хохлатый, Stipa comata; 4. серебряная трава, мискантус, Miscanthus

silky grass эриокома заострённая, Eriocoma cuspidala

silver grass серебряная трава, мискантус, Miscanthus

silver hair grass аира гвоздичная, Aira caryophyllea

Simpson's grass просо слабоволосистое, Panicum hemitomon

slender fescue grass овсяница восьмицветковая, Festuca octoflora

slender spike grass бухарник рыхлый, Holcus laxus

slender wheat grass пырей нежный, Agropyrum tenerum

slender-stemmed panic grass просо переплетённое, Panicum implicatum

slough grass бекманния, Beckmannia

small bur grass ценхрус каролинский, Cenchrus carolinianus

small rush grass спороболус незаметный, Sporobolus neglectus

small tufted love grass полевичка волосистая, Eragrostis polisa

small-fruited panic grass просо мечелистное, Panicum ensifolium

smaller seabeach grass просо горькое, Panicum amarum

smooth brome grass костёр, Bromus

smooth creeping love grass полевичка гипновидная, Eragrostis hypnoides

smooth spear grass мятлик гладкий, Poa laevigata

snake grass хвощ полевой, Equisetum arvense

sod grasses дерновые растения, дерновые злаки

soft grass бухарник, Holcus

soft-leaved panic grass просо мягколистное, Panicum malacohpyllum

soft-walis grass поручейница водная, Catabrosa aquatica

sour grass щавель малый, щавелек, Rumex acetosella

southern fescue grass овсяница беличья, Festuca sciurea

southern grass просо горьковатое, Panicum amarulum

sow grass ложечница вороньелаповидная, Cochlearia coronopus

spider grass аристида трёхрядная, Aristida ternipes

spike grass 1. униола метельчатая, Uniola paniculata; 2. песколюб песчаный, Ammophila arenaria

spiked grasses колосовые злаки

spiral-awned beard grass эриантус скрученный, Erianthus contortus

spur grass камыш мощный, Scirpus robustus

squirrel-tail grass ячмень гривастый, Hordeum jubatum

star grass 1. алетрис, Aletris ; 2. хлорис прутьевидная (Chloris virgata) ; 3. ясменник пахучий, Asperula odorata

stiff hairy panic grass просо метловидное, Panicum scoparioides

stiff prairie grass 1. акамптокладос сидячеколосковый, Acamptoclados sessilispica ; 2. полевичка сидячецветковая, Eragrostis sessilispica

stink grass полевичка опушённая, Eragrostis cilianensis

stout love grass полевичка щетинистая, Eragrostis hirsuta

strict blue-eyed grass сисюринхий торчащий, Sisyrinchium strictum

strong-scented love grass полевичка крупная, Eragrostis major; полевичка крупноколосковая, Eragrostis megastachya

Sudan grass суданка, суданская трава, Sorghum vulgare

sugar grass поллиния, Pollinia

surf grass филлоспадикс, Phyllospadix

sward grass серебряная трава, мискантус, Miscanthus

sweed reed grass цинна камышевидная, Cinna arundinacea

Swiss rye grass плевел жёсткий, Lolium rigidum

switch grass просо прутьевидное, Panicum virgatum

sword grass камыш американский, Scirpus americanus

sylvan spear grass мятлик лесной, Poa silvestris

tall bent grass полевица высокая, Agrostis altissima

tall manna grass манник водный, Glyceria aquatica

tall oat grass французский райграсс высокий, Arrhenatherum elatus

tall-fringed panic grass просо изменчивое, Panicum mutabile

tall-growing grasses верховые злаки

tape grass валлиснерия спиральная, Vallesneria spiralis

tassel grass руппия морская, Ruppia maritima

Terrel grass колосняк виргинский, Elymus virginicus

Texas blue grass манник водный, Glyceria aquatica

thatch grass просо прутьевидное, Panicum virgatum

three-awned grass аристида, Aristida

tickle grass полевица зимующая, Agrostis hiemalis

tiger grass тизанолена, Thysanolaena

timothy grass тимофеевка луговая, Phleum pratense

toad grass ситник лягушечный, Juncus bufonius

toetoe grass арундо, Arundo

toothache grass ктениум душистый, Ctenium aromaticum

toowomba canary grass канареечник луковичная, Phalaris bulbosa

torpedo grass просо ползучее, Panicum repens

tuft grasses кустовые злаки

tufted hair grass луговик дернистый, Deschampsia caespitosa

tufted spear grass мятлик смешанный, Poa confusa

Tunis grass тунисская трава, Sorghum virganum

turf forming grasses дернообразующие злаки

turkey grass подмаренник цепкий, Galium aparine

turtle grass 1. таласия, Thalassia; 2. взморник морской, Zostera marina

tussock grasses туссоковые злаки

twin bent grass полевица сдвоенная, Agrostis geminata

twopenny grass луговой чай, Lysimachia nummularia

upright brome grass костёр прямостоячий, Bromus erectus

uva grass гинериум стреловидный, Gynerium sagittatum

vanilla grass зубровка душистая, Hierochlo odorata

velvet bent grass полевица собачья, Agrostis canina

velvet grass бухарник шерстистый, Holcus lanatus

velvety panic grass просо метельчатое, Panicum scoparium

viper's grass синяк обыкновенный, Echium vulgare

wart grass молочай солнцегляд, Euphorbia helioscopia

warty panic grass просо бородавчатое, Panicum verrucosum

Washington bent grass полевица болотная, Agrostis palustris

water grass горчица полевая, Sinapis arvensis

water whorl grass поручейница водная, Catabrosa aquatica

wavy hair grass луговик извилистый, Deschampsia flexuosa

wavy meadow grass мятлик горный, Poa laxa

weak spear grass мятлик слабый, Poa debilis

weedle grass ковыль хохлатый, Stipa comata

western fescue grass овсяница западная, Festuca occidentalis

western wheat grass пырей Смита, Agropyrum smithi

wheat grass пырей, Agropyrum

white grass 1. леерсия виргинская, Leersia virginica ; 2. гомалоценхрус виргинский, Homalocenchrus virginicus

white-edged panic grass просо мелкое, Panicum tenue

white-haired panic grass просо слабоворсистое, Panicum villosissimum

whitetube star grass алетрис мучнистый, Aletris farinosa

whitlow grass крупка, Draba

widgeon grass руппия морская, Ruppia maritima

wild false grass просо прутьевидное, Panicum virgatum

wild oat grass дантония колосовидная, Danthonia spicata

wild timothy grass мюленбергия Шребера, Muhlenbergia schreberi

willow grass горец земноводный, Polygonum amphibium

windmill grass хлорис мутовчатый, Chloris verticillata

wire grass мятлик сплюснутый, Poa compressa

witch grass пырей ползучий, Agropyrum repens

witch panic grass просо волосовидное, Panicum capillare

wood meadow grass мятлик шафранный, Poa crocata

wood reed grass вейник сплетённый, Calamogrostis perplexa

woody grasses деревянистые злаки

woolly beard grass эриантус распростёртый, Erianthus divaricatus

woolly panic grass просо шерстистое, Panicum lanuginosum

worm grass жимолость приморская, Lonicera marylandica

wrack grass взморник морской, Zostera marina

yellow foxtail grass щетинник сизый, Setaria glauca

yellow grass ситовник желтоватый, Pycreus flavescens

yellow nut grass сыть съедобная, Cyperus esculentus

yellow scorpion grass незабудка разноцветная, Myosotis versicolor

yellow star grass гипоксис жестковолосистый, Hypoxis hirsuta

yellow-eyed grass ксирис, Xyris

zebra grass мискантус китайский зеброидный, Miscanthus sinensis zebrinus

1) трава; злак; дёрн; pl злаковые травы

2) пастбище; пастись

3) зарастать травой

4) засевать травой

•

- alang grass

* * *

• злак

• злаки

• злаковые травы

• пастись

• семейство злаковых

• травянистое растение

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

1) внутренняя полость среднего уха

2) хлопать крыльями

3) ихт. горбыль; pl сциеновые, горбылёвые ( Sciaenidae)

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- barbel drum

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• горбылевые

• горбыль

• сциеновые